👥 Sociology Complete 25,000+ Word Guide to Social Structures, Institutions & Inequality

H3: Historical Materialism

Marx's theory that economic relations (material conditions) shape society. Base (economic structure: means and relations of production) determines superstructure (politics, law, culture, ideology). Change in productive forces leads to change in social relations, class struggle. History as succession of modes of production: primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, communism.

H3: Class and Exploitation

Capitalism: two main classes—bourgeoisie (own means of production) and proletariat (sell labor power). Exploitation: workers produce more value than they receive in wages (surplus value). Profits come from unpaid labor. Class consciousness—awareness of common interests. False consciousness—misperception of true class interests.

H3: Alienation

Workers alienated from: product of labor (don't own what they make), labor process (no control), species-being (human potential), other workers (competition). Capitalism reduces humans to commodities, fragments existence. Overcoming alienation requires transformation of social relations.

H3: Ideology

Dominant ideas are ideas of ruling class. Ideology legitimates existing power relations, makes them seem natural, inevitable. Religion as "opium of the people." Hegemony (Gramsci)—ruling class maintains power through consent, not just coercion, by making worldview seem common sense.

H3: Social Facts

Social facts—ways of acting, thinking, feeling external to individual, endowed with coercive power. Laws, customs, beliefs, social structures. Sociology's subject matter. Suicide rates as social fact (pattern explained by social integration, not individual psychology).

H3: Types of Solidarity

Mechanical solidarity: Traditional societies, similarity, collective consciousness strong, repressive law. Organic solidarity: Modern societies, specialization, interdependence, restitutive law. Division of labor creates new form of cohesion. Transition can cause anomie.

H3: Anomie

Normlessness, breakdown of social norms regulating behavior. During rapid change, old norms lose force, new not yet developed. Egoistic suicide—insufficient integration. Altruistic suicide—excessive integration. Anomic suicide—insufficient regulation. Fatalistic suicide—excessive regulation.

H3: Sociology of Religion

Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912)—study of totemism in Australian aborigines. Religion = unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, uniting adherents in moral community. Sacred/profane distinction. Collective effervescence—intense emotion in rituals strengthens collective consciousness. Religion ultimately worship of society.

H3: Social Action

Weber's sociology focuses on meaningful social action. Four types: traditional (custom), affectual (emotion), value-rational (commitment to values), instrumental-rational (efficient means to ends). Understanding subjective meanings central (verstehen).

H3: Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism

Weber's most famous work: Calvinist doctrine of predestination created anxiety about salvation. This-worldly asceticism—hard work, frugality, reinvestment as signs of election. Religious ideas shaped economic behavior, contributed to rise of capitalism. Shows ideas matter, not just material conditions.

H3: Rationalization

Modernity characterized by increasing rationality—calculation, efficiency, predictability, control. Traditional, value-rational action displaced by instrumental rationality. Disenchantment of the world—magic, mystery replaced by science, reason. Rationalization brings progress but also "iron cage" of bureaucracy, loss of meaning.

H3: Bureaucracy and Authority

Bureaucracy ideal type: hierarchy, specialization, rules, impersonality, merit-based. Most efficient form of organization, but can become dehumanizing. Authority types: traditional (custom), charismatic (personal qualities), legal-rational (position, rules).

H3: Stratification: Class, Status, Party

Multidimensional approach. Class—economic position. Status—social honor, prestige, lifestyle. Party—power in organizations. Inequality not reducible to class alone.

H3: Origins and Goals

Frankfurt School (Institute for Social Research) established 1923 in Germany. Key figures: Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Erich Fromm. Critical theory aimed to critique and transform society, not just understand it. Drew on Marx, Freud, Hegel. Sought to explain why revolution didn't occur, why workers accepted capitalism.

H3: Culture Industry

Adorno and Horkheimer (Dialectic of Enlightenment, 1944): Culture industry (mass media, popular culture) produces standardized cultural goods that manipulate masses into passivity. Creates false needs, integrates individuals into capitalist system. Standardization, pseudo-individualization.

H3: One-Dimensional Man

Herbert Marcuse (1964): Advanced industrial society creates false needs, integrates opposition, eliminates critical thinking. Technological rationality becomes form of social control. One-dimensional thought and behavior.

H3: Jürgen Habermas

Second-generation critical theorist. Communicative action—rational understanding achieved through dialogue. Public sphere—space for rational-critical debate. System (economy, state) vs lifeworld (culture, society, personality). Colonization of lifeworld by system leads to crises.

H3: Power/Knowledge

Power and knowledge are inseparable. Knowledge is not neutral—it's always intertwined with power relations. Power produces knowledge, knowledge enables power. Disciplinary power emerged in 18th-19th centuries—surveillance, normalization, examination.

H3: Discipline and Punish

History of prison (1975). Shift from sovereign power (public executions) to disciplinary power (prisons, schools, barracks). Panopticon (Bentham)—circular prison with central tower, prisoners always visible but can't see guard. Creates self-discipline, internalized surveillance. Model for modern society.

H3: Biopower

Power over life—regulates populations through birth rates, health, mortality. Biopolitics—management of populations. Sexuality as key site of biopower.

H3: Genealogy

Historical method tracing descent and emergence, showing contingency of present. Genealogy of morality, sexuality, punishment. Rejects linear history, shows how institutions and practices emerge from power struggles.

H3: Key Concepts

Habitus: Internalized dispositions, ways of thinking and acting, shaped by social position. Unconscious, embodied, durable. Guides practice without conscious rules.

Field: Social arena where actors compete for resources and position. Each field has its own logic, stakes, rules (art, academia, politics).

Capital: Resources used in fields. Economic (money, assets), cultural (knowledge, taste, credentials), social (networks), symbolic (prestige, honor).

H3: Distinction

Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (1979). Taste classifies and classifies the classifier. Cultural capital reproduces class privilege. Upper class distinguishes itself through legitimate culture (art, classical music). Middle class aspires, working class chooses necessity.

H3: Social Reproduction

Education reproduces social inequality. Schools reward cultural capital of dominant classes, making inequality seem natural (meritocracy). Children of privileged classes have advantages—familiarity with legitimate culture, linguistic competence, parental support.

H3: What is Family?

Family—social institution uniting individuals into cooperative groups caring for children, regulating sexual relations, providing emotional and economic support. Nuclear family—parents + children. Extended family—multiple generations, relatives. Kinship systems—social networks based on blood, marriage, adoption.

H3: Functions of Family

Primary socialization—children learn culture, values, norms. Emotional support—intimacy, care, belonging. Economic cooperation—pooling resources, division of labor. Regulation of sexuality—incest taboos, marriage norms. Social placement—ascribed status, class reproduction.

H3: Marriage Patterns

Monogamy: One spouse. Polygamy: Multiple spouses (polygyny: multiple wives; polyandry: multiple husbands). Endogamy: Marriage within group. Exogamy: Marriage outside group. Patrilocal: Live with husband's family. Matrilocal: Live with wife's family. Neolocal: Establish new residence.

H3: Theoretical Perspectives

Functionalist: Family serves essential functions, contributes to social stability (Parsons). Conflict: Family reproduces inequality, gender oppression (patriarchy). Feminist: Family as site of gender inequality, domestic labor, violence. Symbolic interaction: Family as negotiated reality, roles, meanings.

H3: Functions of Education

Socialization: Learning cultural norms, values, skills. Academic skills: Knowledge transmission. Sorting and selection: Allocate individuals to positions (meritocracy). Credentialism: Degrees as screening device. Child care: Supervision. Social integration: Create common identity. Social change: Innovation, critical thinking.

H3: Hidden Curriculum

Unspoken norms, values, beliefs transmitted through schooling. Punctuality, obedience, competition, respect for authority, conformity. Reproduces social order, prepares for workplace. Tracking—sorting students into different educational paths (college prep, vocational). Can reproduce inequality.

H3: Inequality in Education

Class: Funding disparities (property taxes), cultural capital (Bourdieu), parental involvement, expectations. Race: Segregation (residential, tracking), funding, discipline disparities (school-to-prison pipeline), stereotype threat. Gender: Historical exclusion, subject choices, teacher interactions, but girls now outperform boys in many measures.

H3: Theoretical Perspectives

Functionalist: Education contributes to social stability, meritocracy (Davis-Moore). Conflict: Education reproduces inequality, legitimates class structure (Bowles, Gintis). Interactionist: Teacher expectations (self-fulfilling prophecy), labeling, student subcultures. Feminist: Gender socialization, hidden curriculum. Critical pedagogy (Freire): Education for liberation, not domestication.

H3: What is Religion?

Durkheim: Religion is unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, uniting adherents in moral community. Sacred/profane distinction. Weber: Religion as source of meaning, theodicy (problem of evil). Marx: "Opium of the people," legitimates inequality. Berger: Sacred canopy, world-building.

H3: Religious Organizations

Church: Large, bureaucratic, integrated into society (Catholic, Anglican). Denomination: Pluralistic, tolerates others (Methodist, Baptist). Sect: Small, breakaway, high tension with society (early Methodists). Cult: Novel, individualistic, mystical (New Age). New religious movements. Megachurches.

H3: Religious Beliefs

Theism: Belief in God(s). Monotheism: One God (Judaism, Christianity, Islam). Polytheism: Many gods (Hinduism). Non-theistic: No gods (Buddhism, Confucianism). Rituals: Prescribed religious practices (worship, prayer, sacrifice, pilgrimage). Rites of passage: Birth, marriage, death. Taboos: Forbidden acts.

H3: Secularization

Thesis: modernity reduces religion's influence. Differentiation—religion separated from other spheres. Decline—religious participation decreases. Privatization—religion becomes private matter. Debated: secularization in Europe, but high religiosity in US (exceptionalism), revival in Global South, fundamentalism as reaction.

H3: Economic Systems

Capitalism: Private ownership, markets, profit motive. Socialism: Public ownership, planning, equality. Mixed economies: Combine elements. Welfare capitalism: Market + social protection. Varieties of capitalism (liberal, coordinated).

H3: Labor Markets

Primary labor market: Good jobs, stable, benefits, advancement (core). Secondary labor market: Bad jobs, unstable, low pay, no benefits (periphery). Dual labor market theory. Segmentation by race, gender. Precarious work: Gig economy, temporary, part-time, contract. Flexibility vs insecurity.

H3: Occupations

Professions: Specialized knowledge, autonomy, ethical codes, prestige (medicine, law). Professionalization process. Semi-professions: Teaching, nursing, social work. Occupations stratified by status, income. Occupational segregation by gender, race. Emotional labor: Managing feelings for work (Hochschild).

H3: Corporations

Multinational corporations—operate across borders, huge economic power, influence politics. Corporate culture. Managerial class. Shareholder vs stakeholder models. Corporate social responsibility. Financialization—shift from production to finance.

H3: What is Social Class?

Class—group sharing similar economic position, life chances. Marx: Relation to means of production (bourgeoisie, proletariat). Weber: Class (economic), status (prestige), party (power). Wright: Contradictory class locations. SES (socioeconomic status): Income, education, occupation.

H3: Class Stratification

Upper class: Wealthy, owners, top executives. Upper-middle class: Professionals, managers. Middle class: White collar, skilled. Working class: Blue collar, manual. Working poor: Low-wage, unstable. Underclass: Persistently poor, marginalized. Boundaries blurry, contested.

H3: Poverty

Absolute poverty: Lacking basic necessities. Relative poverty: Below societal standard. Poverty line, poverty rate. Feminization of poverty: Women overrepresented. Concentrated poverty: Poor neighborhoods. Working poor: Employed but poor. Deep poverty: Below half poverty line. Causes—individual (deficits), structural (lack opportunities, discrimination, deindustrialization, inadequate safety net).

H3: Wealth

Wealth—assets minus debts. Much more unequal than income. Top 1% own 35% of US wealth, bottom 50% own 1%. Wealth gap by race (White median $188K, Black $24K). Intergenerational transmission. Wealth provides security, opportunity, power.

H3: Social Mobility

Intragenerational: Within lifetime. Intergenerational: Across generations. Upward, downward, horizontal. Absolute mobility: Standard of living compared to parents. Relative mobility: Position compared to others. US mobility lower than commonly believed—"American Dream" myth. Factors: education, family background, race, economic structure.

H3: Race as Social Construct

Race not biological—human genome 99.9% identical. Racial categories vary across cultures, change historically. Omi & Winant: Racial formation—process by which racial categories created, inhabited, transformed. Racial projects link structure and representation. One-drop rule, hypodescent. Census categories change.

H3: Ethnicity

Shared culture, language, ancestry, history. Ethnic identity—subjective identification. Symbolic ethnicity (Gans): Optional, leisure-time identity for white ethnics. Situational ethnicity: Context-dependent. Panethnicity: Grouping of related ethnicities (Asian American, Latino).

H3: Racism

Individual: Prejudice, discrimination. Institutional: Policies, practices that disadvantage groups. Structural: Systemic, embedded in social structure. Color-blind racism (Bonilla-Silva): Seemingly race-neutral ideology that reproduces inequality. White privilege: Unearned advantages. Microaggressions: Subtle slights, insults.

H3: Discrimination

Unequal treatment based on group membership. Direct: Explicitly unequal. Indirect: Seemingly neutral policy has disparate impact. Statistical: Using group averages to judge individuals. Implicit bias: Unconscious attitudes. Measuring discrimination—audit studies (pairs of equally qualified testers).

H3: Critical Race Theory

Race central to social structure. Racism ordinary, not exceptional. Interest convergence—advances only when benefit whites. Social construction thesis. Differential racialization—groups racialized differently. Intersectionality (Crenshaw): Multiple identities intersect. Storytelling—counter-narratives.

H3: Sex and Gender

Sex: Biological (chromosomes, hormones, anatomy). Intersex: Not clearly male/female. Gender: Social (masculine, feminine, non-binary). Gender identity: Internal sense of self. Gender expression: Outer presentation. Cisgender: Identity matches sex assigned at birth. Transgender: Does not match. Gender as performance (Butler).

H3: Gender Socialization

Learning gender roles through family, education, media, peers. Gendered toys, clothes, activities. Differential treatment of boys and girls. Reinforcement—sanctions for non-conformity. Doing gender: Gender accomplished in everyday interaction (West & Zimmerman).

H3: Patriarchy

Male dominance in social institutions. Feminists: patriarchy universal? Varies across cultures, changes historically. Manifestations: division of labor, control of women's bodies, violence, underrepresentation in power. Hegemonic masculinity (Connell): Dominant form of masculinity that subordinates others.

H3: Feminist Theory

Liberal feminism: Equality, rights, reform. Radical feminism: Patriarchy root of oppression, separate institutions. Socialist feminism: Capitalism + patriarchy. Postmodern feminism: Deconstruct gender categories. Intersectionality (Crenshaw, hooks): Multiple oppressions. Waves: First (suffrage), second (1970s equality, personal is political), third (1990s diversity, individual), fourth (social media, #MeToo).

H3: Sexuality

Sexual orientation—heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, asexual. Queer theory: Challenges binary categories, heteronormativity. Sexual scripts—culturally learned. LGBTQ+ rights movement—decriminalization, anti-discrimination, marriage equality. Progress but continued discrimination, violence. Transgender rights current frontier.

H3: Global Inequality Patterns

Global North (developed, rich countries) vs Global South (developing, poor). Gap in income, health, education. Richest 1% own 45% of world wealth. 700 million live in extreme poverty (<$2.15/day). Child mortality 5x higher in low-income countries. Life expectancy gap 18 years.

H3: Theories of Development

Modernization theory: All societies follow similar path from traditional to modern. Rich countries provide model, aid, investment. Dependency theory: Underdevelopment results from exploitation by core countries. World-systems theory (Wallerstein): Single capitalist world-economy with core, semi-periphery, periphery. Core exploits periphery through unequal exchange.

H3: Colonialism and Postcolonialism

Colonialism—direct political control, resource extraction, labor exploitation. Shaped global inequality, racial hierarchies, national boundaries. Postcolonial theory: Examines cultural legacies, identity, hybridity. Orientalism (Said): Western representations of East as exotic, inferior.

H3: Globalization and Inequality

Globalization—increasing interconnectedness. Economic integration, trade, finance, investment. Winners and losers—some countries, groups benefit, others marginalized. Inequality between countries declined (China, India growth) but within countries increased. Anti-globalization movements, fair trade, debt cancellation campaigns.

H3: Elements of Culture

Values: Abstract standards of good, desirable, worth. Norms: Rules of behavior. Folkways: Everyday customs (tipping, dress). Mores: Moral significance (theft, adultery). Taboos: Forbidden (incest). Laws: Codified norms. Sanctions: Rewards, punishments. Symbols: Anything carrying meaning (flag, cross). Language: System of symbols, shapes perception (Sapir-Whorf hypothesis).

H3: Material and Nonmaterial Culture

Material culture: Physical objects (artifacts, technology, art). Nonmaterial culture: Ideas, knowledge, beliefs, values, norms. Technology shapes culture. Cultural lag (Ogburn): Material culture changes faster than nonmaterial.

H3: Cultural Variation

Subcultures: Groups with distinct norms, values within larger culture (bikers, gamers, skaters). Countercultures: Reject dominant culture (hippies, punks). Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by own standards. Cultural relativism: Understanding culture on its own terms. Xenocentrism: Preference for other cultures. Multiculturalism: Recognition, celebration of diversity.

H3: Theories of Culture

Functionalist: Culture meets needs, maintains social order. Conflict: Culture legitimates inequality (ideology). Interactionist: Culture created, sustained through interaction. Cultural studies: Power, resistance, popular culture (Hall, Hebdige). Bourdieu: Cultural capital, distinction, taste as social reproduction.

H3: Socialization

Lifelong process of learning culture, developing self. Primary socialization: Childhood, family. Secondary socialization: Later, specific roles (school, work). Anticipatory socialization: Preparing for future roles. Resocialization: Discarding old behaviors, learning new (prisons, military). Agents: family, school, peers, media, workplace.

H3: Theories of Self

Mead: Self emerges through social interaction. I (spontaneous, creative) and Me (socialized self). Generalized other—internalized expectations of society. Looking-glass self (Cooley): Self based on how we think others see us. Goffman: Dramaturgy: life as performance, impression management, front stage/back stage. Identity as performance, not essence.

H3: Role Theory

Roles: Expected behaviors associated with statuses. Role set: Multiple roles attached to status. Role conflict: Incompatible expectations from different roles. Role strain: Incompatible expectations from same role. Role exit: Disengaging from role. Role taking: Assuming perspective of other.

H3: Identity Formation

Erikson: Identity crisis in adolescence. Marcia: Identity statuses (achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, diffusion). Identity as project (Giddens)—reflexively constructed. Identity politics: Mobilization around shared identity (race, gender, sexuality). Intersectionality: Multiple identities intersect.

H3: Mass Media

Forms: television, film, radio, newspapers, magazines, internet, social media. Functions: information, entertainment, socialization, social control, profit. Concentration of ownership—few corporations control most media. Gatekeeping: Filtering what reaches public. Agenda-setting: Media tell us what to think about, not what to think.

H3: Theories of Media Effects

Cultivation theory: Heavy TV viewing shapes perception of reality (mean world syndrome). Hypodermic needle: Media directly injects ideas (outdated). Two-step flow: Opinion leaders mediate. Uses and gratifications: Active audiences choose media for needs. Reception theory: Audiences decode differently (dominant, negotiated, oppositional).

H3: Representation

How groups portrayed in media. Stereotypes—simplified, often negative representations. Underrepresentation—invisibility, symbolic annihilation (Gerbner). Misrepresentation—distorted images. Debates over media effects on body image, violence, socialization. Representation matters for identity, inclusion.

H3: Digital Culture

Social media—Facebook, Instagram, TikTok, X (Twitter). Networked publics. Participatory culture—users create, share. Influencers. Algorithms shape what we see. Filter bubbles, echo chambers. Misinformation, disinformation. Surveillance, data mining. Digital divide—unequal access.

H3: What are Social Movements?

Sustained, organized collective effort to promote or resist social change. Types: reform (change specific policies), revolutionary (overthrow system), redemptive (change individuals), alternative (limited change). Examples: civil rights, women's suffrage, labor, environmental, LGBTQ, Occupy, Black Lives Matter.

H3: Theories of Social Movements

Deprivation theory: Grievances from relative deprivation motivate action. Resource mobilization: Success depends on resources (money, organization, leadership, networks). Political process: Political opportunities (openings in political system) matter. Framing: How issues defined, grievances interpreted. Collective identity: Sense of "we." New social movements: Focus on identity, quality of life, not class.

H3: Movement Stages

Emergence: Issue recognition, initial organizing. Coalescence: Mobilization, collective action. Bureaucratization: Formal organization, professionalization. Decline: Success, co-optation, repression, fragmentation. Some movements cycle.

H3: Tactics

Conventional: Lobbying, litigation, voting. Demonstrative: Marches, rallies, vigils. Confrontational: Boycotts, strikes, sit-ins. Violent: Riots, terrorism. Choice depends on resources, political context, goals. Civil disobedience: Nonviolent lawbreaking.

H3: Urbanization

Process by which population concentrates in cities. Global: now 56% urban, projected 68% by 2050. Industrial Revolution drove urbanization. Megacities (>10 million). Suburbanization—movement to suburbs. Urban sprawl—low-density development. Edge cities—suburban business centers.

H3: Chicago School

Park, Burgess, McKenzie—urban ecology. Concentric zone model—city grows outward in rings: central business district, transition zone, working class, residential, commuter. Invasion, succession. Wirth—urbanism as way of life: size, density, heterogeneity produce anonymity, tolerance, but also social disorganization.

H3: Community

Tonnies—Gemeinschaft (community, traditional, intimate) vs Gesellschaft (association, modern, impersonal). Debate whether community lost in cities. Networks, enclaves, ethnic neighborhoods, suburbs, gated communities. Social capital (Putnam)—networks, trust, reciprocity. Decline of social capital? Bowling Alone.

H3: Gentrification

Middle-class professionals moving to working-class neighborhoods, displacing residents. Renovation, rising rents, business change. Debated: benefits (investment, services) vs harms (displacement, loss of community). Racial dimension—often white newcomers, Black/Latino long-term residents.

H3: Dimensions of Globalization

Economic: Global trade, finance, corporations. Political: International organizations, NGOs, global governance. Cultural: Global media, consumer culture, hybridization. Ecological: Climate change, environmental issues transcend borders.

H3: Theories of Globalization

Hyperglobalizers: End of nation-state, global market dominance. Skeptics: Globalization exaggerated, regionalization more significant. Transformationalists: Fundamental transformation, but outcomes contingent. World-systems theory—globalization as continuation of capitalist world-economy.

H3: Resistance and Alternatives

Anti-globalization movements—protest against corporate power, inequality, environmental destruction. Global justice movement. Alter-globalization—alternative forms of globalization (fair trade, global civil society). Degrowth, localization, indigenous movements.

H3: Surveys

Questionnaires administered to samples of populations. Types: cross-sectional (one time point), longitudinal (multiple time points). Issues: sampling, question wording, response rates, social desirability bias. Representative samples allow generalization.

H3: Experiments

Manipulate independent variable, measure dependent variable, random assignment. Laboratory vs field experiments. Can establish causality, but may lack external validity. Quasi-experiments lack random assignment.

H3: Statistics

Descriptive: Mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation. Inferential: T-tests, ANOVA, chi-square, regression. Statistical significance (p < .05) means result unlikely by chance. Correlation not causation. Spurious relationships.

H3: Sampling

Probability sampling: Random, stratified, cluster—allows generalization. Non-probability: Convenience, snowball, quota—useful for hard-to-reach populations, but cannot generalize.

H3: Ethnography

Extended immersion in community, participant observation, field notes. Understand culture from insider perspective. Examples: Whyte's Street Corner Society, Bourgois' In Search of Respect.

H3: Interviews

Structured: Fixed questions, comparable responses. Semi-structured: Guide with flexibility. Unstructured: Open-ended, conversational. In-depth interviews explore meanings, experiences. Focus groups—group discussion.

H3: Case Studies

In-depth examination of single case (person, organization, event). Multiple data sources. Useful for exploring new phenomena, theoretical development. Limits to generalizability.

H3: Content Analysis

Systematic analysis of texts, documents, media. Can be quantitative (counting categories) or qualitative (interpreting meaning). Coding, theme development.

H3: Grounded Theory

Theory developed inductively from data. Systematic coding, constant comparison, theoretical sampling. Glaser and Strauss (1967).

H3: Ethical Principles

Informed consent: Participants understand research and agree voluntarily. Confidentiality: Protecting identities. Anonymity: No identifying information collected. Minimize harm: Avoid physical, psychological harm. Debriefing: Explain research afterward.

H3: Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

Review research proposals to ensure ethical standards. Required for federally funded research. Assess risks, benefits, informed consent, protections for vulnerable populations.

H3: Ethical Controversies

Milgram obedience study: Participants believed they harmed others—deception, stress. Stanford prison experiment: Students assigned guard/prisoner roles, experiment out of control. Tuskegee syphilis study: Black men denied treatment. Led to ethical guidelines.