Memory
Sensory, short-term, working, long-term memory. Encoding, storage, retrieval, forgetting, and memory disorders.
Learning
Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning, cognitive learning theories.
Thinking & Problem-Solving
Cognition, concepts, reasoning, decision-making, problem-solving strategies, creativity.
Intelligence
Theories of intelligence, IQ testing, multiple intelligences, nature vs nurture, intelligence research.
Language
Language development, structure, brain areas, bilingualism, animal communication, language disorders.
Cognitive Development
Piaget's stages, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, information processing, theory of mind.
Social & Emotional Development
Attachment theory, temperament, parenting styles, emotional development, identity formation.
Moral Development
Piaget's moral reasoning, Kohlberg's stages, Gilligan's care ethics, moral behavior research.
Lifespan Development
Prenatal development, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, aging, death and dying.
Anxiety Disorders
GAD, panic disorder, phobias, social anxiety, OCD, PTSD, causes, and treatments.
Mood Disorders
Major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, persistent depressive disorder, causes, treatments.
Schizophrenia Spectrum
Symptoms, types, causes, neurobiology, treatments, and recovery from psychotic disorders.
Personality Disorders
Cluster A, B, C personality disorders, borderline, antisocial, narcissistic, treatments.
Social Influence
Conformity, obedience, compliance, persuasion, Asch experiments, Milgram study.
Attitudes & Persuasion
Attitude formation, attitude change, cognitive dissonance, persuasion techniques, propaganda.
Attribution & Social Cognition
Attribution theories, biases, heuristics, stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination.
Group Dynamics
Group formation, leadership, decision-making, groupthink, social loafing, cooperation.
Neurons & Neurotransmitters
Neuron structure, action potentials, synapses, neurotransmitters, neural communication.
Brain Structure & Function
Brain anatomy, lobes, hemispheres, subcortical structures, brain imaging techniques.
Nervous System
CNS, PNS, autonomic nervous system, endocrine system, stress response, hormones.
Clinical Psychology
Assessment, diagnosis, therapy approaches, ethics, and professional practice in clinical settings.
Counseling Psychology
Counseling theories, therapeutic relationship, skills, applications in mental health.
School Psychology
Educational assessment, intervention, consultation, special education, child development.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Personnel selection, training, motivation, leadership, organizational development, work-life balance.
Forensic Psychology
Criminal profiling, eyewitness testimony, jury decision-making, competency evaluations, expert testimony.
Health Psychology
Stress, coping, health behaviors, chronic illness, patient-provider relationships, biopsychosocial model.
H3: Defining Psychology
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. The word comes from Greek "psyche" (mind, soul) and "logos" (study). It seeks to understand how we think, feel, and act—individually and in groups. Psychology is both a natural science (studying brain processes, behavior) and a social science (studying social interactions, culture).
Psychology addresses fundamental questions: How do we learn? What motivates us? Why do we dream? How does memory work? What causes mental illness? How can we thrive? Psychologists use scientific methods—observation, experimentation, statistical analysis—to answer these questions. The field is diverse, with many subdisciplines focusing on different aspects of human experience.
Psychology matters because it helps us understand ourselves and others. It informs education, mental health treatment, workplace productivity, relationships, public policy, and personal growth. Psychological knowledge can improve lives—reducing suffering, enhancing well-being, and unlocking human potential.
H3: Levels of Analysis
Psychologists study behavior at multiple levels. Biological level — brain systems, neurochemistry, genetics. Individual level — personality, perception, cognition, motivation. Social level — interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, cultural influences. These levels interact—a depressed person has biological vulnerabilities, negative thought patterns, and social stressors.
The biopsychosocial model integrates these levels, recognizing that most phenomena result from interacting biological, psychological, and social factors. This holistic approach is essential for understanding complex human behavior and mental health.
Birth of Scientific Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany. This event marks the beginning of psychology as an independent scientific discipline. Wundt's approach, structuralism, aimed to identify the basic elements of consciousness using introspection.
Functionalism
William James publishes Principles of Psychology (1890), emphasizing how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environments. Functionalism, influenced by Darwin, focused on the purpose of consciousness rather than its structure.
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams, introducing psychoanalysis. Freud emphasizes unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and the role of sexuality in shaping personality.
Behaviorism
John B. Watson publishes "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It," arguing that psychology should study only observable behavior, not mental processes. B.F. Skinner later develops operant conditioning.
Humanistic Psychology
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow develop humanistic psychology as a "third force" rejecting psychoanalysis and behaviorism. They emphasize free will, self-actualization, and human potential.
Cognitive Revolution
Ulric Neisser publishes Cognitive Psychology (1967), marking the rise of cognitive psychology. Researchers study mental processes—memory, thinking, problem-solving—using information processing models.
Decade of the Brain
Advances in neuroscience and brain imaging (fMRI, PET) revolutionize understanding of brain-behavior relationships. Cognitive neuroscience emerges as major field.
Integrative Approaches
Modern psychology integrates multiple perspectives, recognizing that behavior results from interacting biological, psychological, and social factors. Positive psychology, cultural psychology, and evolutionary psychology are active research areas.
H3: Psychodynamic Perspective
Origins: Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) developed psychoanalysis in Vienna. Focuses on unconscious drives, especially sexual and aggressive impulses.
Structure of mind: Id (primitive desires, pleasure principle), Ego (reality principle, mediates), Superego (moral conscience).
Defense mechanisms: Repression (pushing threatening thoughts into unconscious), Projection (attributing own feelings to others), Rationalization (creating logical excuses), Displacement (redirecting emotions), Sublimation (channeling impulses into acceptable activities).
Psychosexual stages: Oral (0-1), Anal (1-3), Phallic (3-6), Latency (6-12), Genital (12+). Fixation at any stage leads to personality traits.
Neo-Freudians: Jung (collective unconscious, archetypes), Adler (inferiority complex, striving for superiority), Horney (basic anxiety, coping strategies).
H3: Behavioral Perspective
Origins: John B. Watson (1878-1958) rejected introspection, studied only observable behavior. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) developed operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning (Pavlov): Neutral stimulus (bell) paired with unconditioned stimulus (food) elicits conditioned response (salivation). Explains emotional responses, phobias.
Operant conditioning (Skinner): Behavior shaped by consequences. Reinforcement increases behavior (positive: add pleasant; negative: remove aversive). Punishment decreases behavior (positive: add aversive; negative: remove pleasant).
Observational learning (Bandura): Bobo doll experiment—children learn by watching models. Vicarious reinforcement.
Applications: Behavior therapy, token economies, education, animal training.
H3: Cognitive Perspective
Origins: Cognitive revolution 1950s-60s (Piaget, Chomsky, Neisser). Studies mental processes: perception, memory, thinking, problem-solving, language.
Information processing model: Computer analogy—input, processing, output. Sensory memory → working memory → long-term memory.
Cognitive neuroscience: Brain bases of cognition using fMRI, EEG, PET. Studies neural correlates of memory, attention, decision-making.
Applications: Cognitive therapy (Beck) for depression, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety, educational interventions.
H3: Humanistic Perspective
Origins: Emerged 1950s-60s as "third force" rejecting psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Emphasizes free will, self-actualization, human potential.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization. Lower needs must be met before higher.
Rogers' person-centered approach: Unconditional positive regard (acceptance without conditions), empathy, genuineness foster growth. Self-concept, incongruence lead to distress.
Applications: Client-centered therapy, education, parenting.
H3: Biological Perspective
Focus: Brain structure, neurochemistry, genetics influence behavior. Neuroscience studies nervous system.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers: dopamine (reward, movement), serotonin (mood, sleep), norepinephrine (alertness), GABA (inhibition), glutamate (excitation).
Brain imaging: fMRI (blood flow), PET (metabolic activity), EEG (electrical activity), MRI (structure).
Evolutionary psychology: Behavior shaped by natural selection—mate selection, aggression, altruism.
Behavioral genetics: Twin studies estimate heritability of traits.
H3: Sociocultural Perspective
Focus: Social and cultural influences on behavior. Cross-cultural psychology studies universal vs culture-specific phenomena.
Individualist cultures (West): Emphasize independence, personal achievement, individual rights.
Collectivist cultures (East): Emphasize interdependence, group harmony, family, community.
Social norms, roles, expectations: Shape behavior in predictable ways. Cultural differences in perception, cognition, emotion, mental health.
H3: Three-Stage Model
Sensory memory: Brief (1-2 sec), large capacity. Iconic (visual), echoic (auditory). Sperling's experiments showed capacity of iconic memory.
Short-term memory (STM): Limited capacity (7±2 chunks), brief duration (~20 sec). Chunking increases capacity. Rehearsal maintains information.
Working memory (Baddeley): Active processing system: Central executive (attention control), phonological loop (verbal info), visuospatial sketchpad (visual/spatial), episodic buffer (integrates info).
Long-term memory (LTM): Unlimited capacity, long duration. Explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative).
H3: Types of Long-Term Memory
Explicit (declarative): Conscious recall. Semantic (facts, knowledge—"Paris is capital of France"). Episodic (personal experiences—"my first day of school").
Implicit (non-declarative): Unconscious. Procedural (skills—riding a bike). Classical conditioning (emotional responses). Priming (prior exposure influences response).
Emotional memories: Strengthened by amygdala involvement. Flashbulb memories—vivid, detailed memories of emotionally charged events.
H3: Encoding and Storage
Encoding: Automatic (unconscious—space, time, frequency) vs effortful (requires attention). Rehearsal—maintenance (simple repetition) vs elaborative (meaning, connections).
Deep processing: Semantic encoding leads to better recall. Self-reference effect—relating information to self improves memory.
Mnemonics: Visual imagery, method of loci, acronyms, peg-word method, chunking.
Storage: Hippocampus crucial for forming explicit memories. Consolidation—process of stabilizing. Sleep important for consolidation.
H3: Retrieval and Forgetting
Retrieval cues: Prompts that trigger memory. Context-dependent memory—better recall same environment. State-dependent memory—recall better same mood.
Forgetting curve (Ebbinghaus): Rapid initial loss then leveling. Encoding failure—never encoded. Storage decay—fading. Retrieval failure—cannot access.
Interference: Proactive (old interferes with new), retroactive (new interferes with old).
False memories (Loftus): Misinformation effect—post-event info alters memory. Constructive nature of memory.
Amnesia: Retrograde (cannot recall past), anterograde (cannot form new). HM case—hippocampus removal, anterograde amnesia.
🧠 Key Memory Studies
Ebbinghaus (1885): Forgetting curve using nonsense syllables. Loftus (1970s): Misinformation effect, false memories. Baddeley (1974): Working memory model. HM (1953): Anterograde amnesia after hippocampal removal, revealed hippocampus role in explicit memory.
H3: Classical Conditioning
Pavlov's dogs: Neutral stimulus (bell) paired with food (unconditioned stimulus) elicits salivation (unconditioned response). After pairing, bell alone (conditioned stimulus) elicits salivation (conditioned response).
Key terms: Acquisition—initial learning. Extinction—CR decreases when CS without US. Spontaneous recovery—return after rest.
Generalization: Respond to similar stimuli (little Albert feared white rat and similar objects). Discrimination: Distinguish between stimuli.
Applications: Phobia treatment (systematic desensitization), advertising (pair product with positive stimuli), taste aversions.
H3: Operant Conditioning
Skinner: Behavior shaped by consequences. Operant behavior operates on environment.
Reinforcement: Increases behavior. Positive (add pleasant stimulus—give food). Negative (remove aversive—stop shock).
Punishment: Decreases behavior. Positive (add aversive—spanking). Negative (remove pleasant—take away toy).
Reinforcement schedules: Continuous (fast learning, fast extinction). Partial (slower acquisition, greater resistance). Ratio schedules (based on number of responses), interval schedules (based on time). Fixed vs variable.
Shaping: Reinforce successive approximations to desired behavior.
H3: Observational Learning
Bandura's Bobo doll experiment (1961): Children watched adult hit doll, then imitated. Demonstrated learning without direct reinforcement.
Four processes: Attention (notice model), Retention (remember), Reproduction (ability to perform), Motivation (want to perform).
Vicarious reinforcement: See model reinforced, increases imitation. Vicarious punishment—see model punished, decreases imitation.
Applications: Media violence effects, modeling prosocial behavior, social learning in education.
H3: Cognitive Learning
Latent learning (Tolman): Learning without reinforcement, demonstrated later. Rats in maze explored, learned layout without reward—demonstrated when reward introduced.
Insight learning (Kohler): Sudden realization of solution. Chimpanzees using boxes to reach bananas—sudden "aha!" moment.
Learned helplessness (Seligman): Dogs given inescapable shocks later didn't escape when possible. Model for depression.
H3: Piaget's Stages
Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Learn through senses and actions. Object permanence develops—understanding objects exist when out of sight. End of stage, begin symbolic thought.
Preoperational (2-7 years): Symbolic thought, language develops. Egocentrism—cannot take others' perspective. Lack conservation—don't understand quantity remains same despite appearance. Animism—attribute life to inanimate objects.
Concrete operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking about concrete objects. Conservation developed. Classification, seriation. Difficulty with abstract reasoning.
Formal operational (12+ years): Abstract reasoning, hypothetical thinking, systematic problem-solving. Deductive reasoning develops.
H3: Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Gap between what child can do independently and with help. Learning occurs in ZPD.
Scaffolding: Support gradually removed as child becomes competent. More knowledgeable other (MKO) provides guidance.
Language and thought: Internalization of social speech. Private speech (talking to self) guides problem-solving, becomes inner speech.
Critique: Emphasizes social and cultural factors more than Piaget. More accurate for some cultures.
H3: Information Processing Approach
Views cognitive development as continuous improvement in processing efficiency, not stage-like shifts. Attention improves—longer focus, better selectivity. Memory improves—strategies (rehearsal, organization) develop. Processing speed increases with age.
H3: Theory of Mind
Understanding that others have mental states different from one's own. False-belief tasks (Sally-Anne) passed around age 4. Precursors: joint attention, pretend play. Autism often involves theory of mind deficits.
H3: Piaget's Moral Development
Heteronomous morality (5-10 years): Rules absolute, unchangeable. Judgments based on consequences, not intentions. Immanent justice—wrongdoing automatically punished.
Autonomous morality (10+ years): Rules social agreements, can change. Consider intentions, not just consequences. Fairness, reciprocity important.
H3: Kohlberg's Stages
Preconventional (self-interest): Stage 1—avoid punishment. Stage 2—gain rewards, reciprocity ("you scratch my back").
Conventional (social approval): Stage 3—good interpersonal relationships, approval. Stage 4—maintain social order, law and order.
Postconventional (principles): Stage 5—social contract, individual rights. Stage 6—universal ethical principles (justice, equality).
Critiques: Gilligan—care perspective missing, gender bias. Cultural bias—postconventional rare in collectivist cultures.
H3: Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
Prevalence: 3-5% of population. Excessive, uncontrollable worry about multiple domains (work, health, finances, relationships) most days for ≥6 months.
Symptoms: Restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance. Worry difficult to control, causes significant distress or impairment.
Pathophysiology: Amygdala hyperactivation, prefrontal cortex hypoactivity, neurotransmitter dysregulation (GABA deficiency, serotonin dysfunction). HPA axis hyperactivity elevates cortisol.
Treatment: CBT with cognitive restructuring, relaxation training, worry exposure. SSRIs/SNRIs first-line pharmacotherapy.
H3: Panic Disorder
Prevalence: 2-3%. Recurrent unexpected panic attacks—sudden surge of intense fear peaking within minutes, with physical symptoms: palpitations, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, chest pain, nausea, dizziness, chills, paresthesias, derealization, fear of losing control or dying.
Agoraphobia: Fear of situations where escape might be difficult or help unavailable. Can become severe, limiting normal activities.
Treatment: CBT with panic control therapy (psychoeducation, breathing retraining, cognitive restructuring, interoceptive exposure). SSRIs/SNRIs first-line. High treatment response rates (70-80%).
H3: Specific Phobia
Prevalence: 7-9%. Marked fear of specific object/situation (animals, heights, flying, blood, etc.). Immediate anxiety, avoidance. Exposure therapy highly effective (systematic desensitization).
H3: Social Anxiety Disorder
Prevalence: 7%. Marked fear of social situations where scrutiny may occur, fearing negative evaluation, embarrassment. Situations avoided or endured with intense distress. CBT with exposure therapy, social skills training, SSRIs effective.
H3: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Prevalence: 1-2%. Obsessions—intrusive, unwanted thoughts, images, urges. Compulsions—repetitive behaviors or mental acts to neutralize anxiety (washing, checking, counting, ordering). Insight varies. Exposure and response prevention (ERP) effective. SSRIs.
H3: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Prevalence: 3-4% lifetime. After trauma (actual/threatened death, serious injury, sexual violence). Re-experiencing (flashbacks, nightmares), avoidance, negative mood/cognition, hyperarousal (hypervigilance, startle). Prolonged exposure, EMDR, CBT, SSRIs effective.
H3: Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
Prevalence: 280 million people (3.8% globally, 6% adults). Leading cause of disability worldwide (WHO).
Diagnosis: ≥5 symptoms for ≥2 weeks, representing change: depressed mood most of day, diminished interest/pleasure (anhedonia), weight/appetite change, insomnia/hypersomnia, psychomotor agitation/retardation, fatigue, worthlessness/guilt, concentration difficulty, thoughts of death. At least one symptom depressed mood or anhedonia.
Pathophysiology: Monoamine hypothesis (deficiency of serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine). Neuroplasticity hypothesis—reduced BDNF, hippocampal volume. HPA axis hyperactivity. Inflammatory cytokines elevated. Genetic heritability 35-40%.
Treatment: CBT, interpersonal therapy, behavioral activation. SSRIs first-line, SNRIs, bupropion. For treatment-resistant: augmentation, ECT, TMS, ketamine.
H3: Bipolar Disorder
Prevalence: 45 million globally (1-2%). Bipolar I: manic episodes (≥1 week) with elevated/irritable mood, grandiosity, decreased need sleep, pressured speech, flight of ideas, distractibility, increased goal-directed activity, risky behavior. Often major depressive episodes.
Bipolar II: Hypomanic episodes (≥4 days, less severe) plus major depressive episodes.
Cyclothymia: Chronic fluctuating hypomanic and depressive symptoms not meeting full criteria.
Treatment: Mood stabilizers (lithium first-line—reduces suicide risk), anticonvulsants (valproate, lamotrigine), atypical antipsychotics. Antidepressants can trigger mania, used cautiously with mood stabilizer.
H3: Symptoms
Positive symptoms: Hallucinations (false sensory perceptions, most commonly auditory), delusions (fixed false beliefs), disorganized speech (loose associations, word salad), disorganized behavior.
Negative symptoms: Flat affect (reduced emotional expression), alogia (poverty of speech), avolition (reduced motivation), anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure), asociality (social withdrawal).
Cognitive symptoms: Attention deficits, memory problems, executive dysfunction.
Prevalence: 1% worldwide. Onset typically late adolescence to early adulthood.
H3: Causes and Treatment
Dopamine hypothesis: Excess dopamine activity in mesolimbic pathway (positive symptoms). Reduced dopamine in prefrontal cortex (negative symptoms).
Other factors: Genetics (80% heritability), prenatal stressors, birth complications, cannabis use.
Treatment: Antipsychotics (typical—haloperidol; atypical—clozapine, risperidone). Psychosocial interventions: CBT, family therapy, social skills training, supported employment.
Cluster A (Odd/Eccentric)
Paranoid: Distrust, suspiciousness. Schizoid: Detachment from relationships, restricted emotion. Schizotypal: Acute discomfort with relationships, cognitive/perceptual distortions, eccentric behavior.
Cluster ACluster B (Dramatic/Erratic)
Antisocial: Disregard for rights of others, impulsivity, lack of remorse. Borderline: Unstable relationships, self-image, emotions; impulsivity. Histrionic: Excessive emotionality, attention-seeking. Narcissistic: Grandiosity, need for admiration, lack of empathy.
Cluster BCluster C (Anxious/Fearful)
Avoidant: Social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, hypersensitivity to negative evaluation. Dependent: Excessive need to be taken care of, submissive, clinging. Obsessive-Compulsive: Preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, control.
Cluster CH3: Borderline Personality Disorder
Features: Unstable relationships, self-image, emotions. Impulsivity, recurrent suicidal behavior, chronic emptiness, intense anger, transient paranoia. Fear of abandonment.
Treatment: Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) specifically developed for BPD. Combines CBT with mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotion regulation.
H3: Antisocial Personality Disorder
Features: Disregard for rights of others, impulsivity, deceitfulness, irritability, aggressiveness, reckless disregard for safety, consistent irresponsibility, lack of remorse. Onset before age 15 (conduct disorder).
Psychopathy: Subset of ASPD with affective deficits (shallow emotions) and interpersonal features (grandiose, manipulative).
Treatment: Difficult, limited evidence. Behavioral approaches, cognitive skills training.
Psychodynamic Therapy
Rooted in Freud. Insight into unconscious conflicts. Free association, dream analysis, transference. Modern shorter-term, more focused.
UnconsciousHumanistic Therapy
Rogers' person-centered therapy—unconditional positive regard, empathy, genuineness. Client leads, therapist provides supportive climate.
Self-actualizationBehavior Therapy
Apply learning principles. Exposure therapy, systematic desensitization, aversion therapy, token economies, modeling.
LearningCognitive Therapy
Identify and change distorted thoughts, schemas. Cognitive distortions: all-or-nothing, overgeneralization, catastrophizing. REBT (Ellis).
ThoughtsCognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Combines cognitive and behavioral—most empirically supported. Effective for depression, anxiety, many disorders.
Evidence-basedMindfulness-Based Therapies
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT). Present-moment awareness, acceptance.
AcceptanceWilhelm Wundt
Father of psychology. Established first psychology lab (1879, Leipzig). Structuralism, introspection.
FounderWilliam James
Functionalism, Principles of Psychology, stream of consciousness, pragmatism.
FunctionalismSigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis. Unconscious, id/ego/superego, defense mechanisms, psychosexual stages.
PsychoanalysisIvan Pavlov
Classical conditioning. Nobel Prize (1904). Dogs salivating to bell.
ConditioningB.F. Skinner
Operant conditioning. Skinner box, reinforcement, behaviorism.
BehaviorismJean Piaget
Cognitive development. Stages of development, schemas, constructivism.
DevelopmentalCarl Rogers
Humanistic psychology. Person-centered therapy, unconditional positive regard.
HumanisticAbraham Maslow
Hierarchy of needs, self-actualization, peak experiences.
HumanisticAlbert Bandura
Observational learning, Bobo doll experiment, social cognitive theory, self-efficacy.
Social LearningAaron Beck
Father of cognitive therapy. Cognitive model of depression, cognitive distortions.
CognitiveMartin Seligman
Learned helplessness, positive psychology, learned optimism, PERMA model.
PositiveElizabeth Loftus
False memories, misinformation effect, constructive nature of memory.
Memory"The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water."
"The good life is a process, not a state of being. It is a direction, not a destination."
"People are not disturbed by things, but by the view they take of them."
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H3: Attachment Theory
Bowlby: Attachment crucial for survival. Secure base—explore when caregiver present. Internal working models of relationships.
Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1978):
Secure (60%): Distressed when mother leaves, happy when returns, explores freely.
Insecure-avoidant (15-20%): Ignores mother, little distress when leaves, avoids on return.
Insecure-resistant/ambivalent (10-15%): Clingy, distressed, angry on return, resists comfort.
Disorganized (5-10%): Contradictory behaviors, freezing, confusion—often with abuse/neglect.
Harlow's monkeys (1958): Contact comfort > food. Monkeys preferred cloth mother over wire mother with food.
H3: Temperament
Thomas & Chess (1977): Inborn personality style. Easy (40%)—regular routines, adaptable, positive. Difficult (10%)—irregular, intense reactions, negative. Slow-to-warm-up (15%)—low activity, withdraw, adapt slowly.
Rothbart: Reactivity (responsiveness to stimuli), self-regulation (ability to modulate responses).
Goodness-of-fit: Match between child's temperament and environmental demands. Important for development.
H3: Parenting Styles (Baumrind)
Authoritative (warm, firm): High warmth, high control. Explain rules, encourage independence. Best outcomes—competent, responsible, self-reliant.
Authoritarian (cold, rigid): Low warmth, high control. Strict rules, obedience demanded. Obedient but anxious, less socially competent.
Permissive (warm, lax): High warmth, low control. Few rules, indulgent. Impulsive, low self-control, entitled.
Uninvolved (neglectful): Low warmth, low control. Detached, neglectful. Worst outcomes—attachment issues, behavior problems.
Cultural variations—authoritative best in Western cultures, authoritarian may be adaptive in some contexts.
H3: Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
Trust vs. Mistrust (infant): Need reliable care. Autonomy vs. Shame (toddler): Independence. Initiative vs. Guilt (preschool): Planning, leadership. Industry vs. Inferiority (elementary): Competence. Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence): Who am I? Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adult): Relationships. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adult): Contributing to next generation. Integrity vs. Despair (late adult): Reflecting on life.